Charleston's dining scene is revered for its Southern staples, vibrant dining rooms and increasing culinary diversity. Open a menu around town and you'll notice a mix of tried-and-true dishes and classics with a twist. And at the heart of many restaurant programs is seafood.
From fish sandwiches and curries to crudos, ceviches and oyster sliders, area menus are loaded up with marine offerings. One thing you'll almost always find is some variation of shrimp and grits -- a dish with a star ingredient that has in recent months been the subject of heightened scrutiny.
Results from DNA testing of shrimp at 44 Charleston-area restaurants in June offered a peek behind the curtain of the local seafood scene. Some establishments advertising "local seafood" were found to be serving imported shrimp, uncovering cases of "shrimp fraud" throughout the city, The Post and Courier previously reported.
The study, conducted by Texas-based SeaD Consulting, a private research firm, and funded by the Southern Shrimp Alliance, an industry trade organization, swept up 40 restaurants in what became known around Charleston as "shrimp gate." It even led to a lawsuit.
The overwhelming response among the general public wasn't just because restaurants were misleading customers through their advertising -- many diners were outraged because shrimp, a Lowcountry staple, can be caught locally.
In Mount Pleasant, diners can watch shrimpers unload wild-caught shrimp on the docks of Shem Creek as they enjoy a meal that very well may include shrimp. But according to the recent testing and interviews with owners, those views may be nothing more than a façade, with multiple restaurants in the area sourcing shrimp from countries beyond our borders, such as Ecuador or Vietnam.
So we wondered: What other species of restaurant-popular seafood are reeled in farther from home than diners may assume, given the Lowcountry's waterfront surroundings? And what constitutes "local" -- a word constantly used by chefs, restaurateurs and public relations firms to promote their businesses?
"There's definitely local as in South Carolina," said Ben Dyar, director of the office of fisheries management at the state's Department of Natural Resources. "Then there's what people might consider regional, but technically local, because fish swim and move and aren't paying attention to state borders."
That's one of the reasons why the interpretations can be endless, said Sara McDonald, vice president of conservation at the S.C. Aquarium.
"Local seafood" could refer to fish caught in South Carolina, in the Southeast region, along the Atlantic coast or in the country, she said.
There isn't a standardized definition of local seafood, she said -- and that goes for other food products, as well. The U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Food and Drug Administration don't have official definitions of local food, leaving the term open to interpretation.
"It very much depends on who you're talking to and what their goals are," McDonald said.
Though the term "local" may be difficult to define, multiple agencies across the state help consumers identify local ingredients, including seafood.
The Department of Agriculture's Certified South Carolina program promotes farmers and food, said communications director Eva Moore. Functioning on an honor system, Certified SC defines local seafood as fish and shellfish grown, harvested or landed in South Carolina, she said.
The Aquarium's Good Catch program, which provides information about local, sustainable seafood options, considers anything harvested (wild-caught or farm-raised) between North Carolina and the east coast of Florida as local. This definition is based on how the federal government organizes fisheries by region, McDonald said.
"The South Atlantic fisheries are some of the most heavily regulated in the world, which gives us confidence that we're making the most sustainable choice," she said.
Buying locally-harvested seafood supports local fisheries and the local economy, McDonald said. It also has a smaller carbon footprint because local seafood doesn't need to be shipped across the country or world.
Favorites like salmon, cod, tilapia, halibut, lobster and scallops live in cold waters and can automatically be ruled out as "local" to the Southeast.
Other species, such as swordfish, tuna and shrimp, can be wild-caught in the Southeast, but there aren't enough of them to fully meet demand, McDonald said. Farm-raised fish and shellfish bolster the supply of these species.
Just because these species can be caught locally doesn't necessarily mean they're being served locally, however. Here's a guide to some of the more popular seafood options and where they might come from.
Mahi-mahi
Mahi-mahi, also known as dolphin fish, is a surface-dwelling species noted for its mild flavor and firm flesh. In Charleston restaurants, it's often grilled and served with a starch and vegetable, fried to form mahi-mahi bites or blackened and placed inside a tortilla to make fish tacos.
The fish, however, was likely sourced well beyond federal waters, said Kerry Marhefka, a council member of the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council and co-owner of local purveyor Abundant Seafood. She estimated 90 percent of mahi-mahi served in U.S. restaurants is imported.
While these fish swim in South Carolina waters, mahi-mahi is more frequently caught by recreational anglers rather than commercial fishermen who sell to dining establishments. The majority of dolphin fish served in local restaurants is imported from countries such as Ecuador and Peru, Marhefka said.
Swordfish
Swordfish, noted for its long, pointy bills, are caught across the world for use in restaurants. The chefs at Sorelle in Charleston, for instance, serve the firm white fish with briny sea beans and capers for a take on Italian piccata.
Swordfish are a highly migratory species that's been fished by East Coast recreational anglers for more than 100 years, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
South Carolina fishermen reel in some swordfish. But it's not prevalent enough in the South to have a significant commercial presence, Marhefka said.
A sustainable fishery, U.S. swordfish is typically caught in the North Atlantic. But about 80 percent of the swordfish consumed in the U.S. is imported, with the largest share coming from Ecuador, she said.
Snapper and grouper
Snapper, a fish that can have a reddish-pinkish color depending on the species, and grouper, the flat-fin fish with long lifespans, are part of the same federally managed fishery. All species within both groups are noted for their coexistence on reefs, and they're prevalent from North Carolina to Florida.
In South Carolina, boats off Shem Creek, McClellanville and Folly Beach land snapper and grouper regularly. But still, "there isn't enough supply in the Southeast to meet the demand," Marhefka said.
Because of this, many restaurants import snapper and grouper, she said. They often come from Mexico, Indonesia and the Caribbean, and often will be passed off as local.
"Just like shrimp, the same thing happens," she said.
Snapper and grouper benefit from well-managed regulations, which have helped stabilize populations, Marhefka said.
Her husband, Mark Marhefka, is one of many local fishermen commercially catching snapper and grouper to sell to restaurants. American and vermillion snapper are typically found in Charleston eateries.
At Sullivan's Fish Camp, James Beard Award-winning chef Jason Stanhope serves lightly-seared local red snapper. It rests on a crisp oval-shaped white plate with blue trim and is barely visible beneath a garden full of crunchy greens, ripe heirloom tomatoes and briny capers.
Tuna
Tuna, a predatory fish with many species, is caught by fishermen around the world. Its popularity has led to overfishing, leading some species to be endangered.
At sushi restaurants, the fish is sliced and set atop pressed rice. It's served raw with peaches and basil to make crudos at Charleston seafood spots, and lightly seared and mixed with greens for salads at local cafés.
Several types are used, including the rosy red bluefin. The majority of the tunas landed in South Carolina waters are albacore, followed by yellow fin and big eye. Though locally-caught tuna does show up at plenty of Charleston restaurants, there isn't nearly enough to meet the high demand, Marhefka said.
Flounder
Flounder, a type of flatfish, is prized for its delicate flavor, smooth texture and versatility. Restaurants around Charleston serve it fried, blackened, broiled, stuffed, baked and grilled. Fleet Landing Restaurant & Bar serves whole fried flounder topped with an apricot glaze and sides of vegetables and Charleston red rice, for instance.
The flounder fishery is mostly recreational in South Carolina, where less than 1 percent is harvested commercially. Commercial harvesting of flounder is limited to bycatch that meets the size requirements and a small gig fishery that must abide by the recreational bag limit, Dyar of DNR said.
Flounder offered on menus around Charleston likely do not come from South Carolina, but could come from North Carolina, which has a commercial trawl fishery, he said.
"We don't trawl inside South Carolina, meaning inside the bays or harbors," Dyar said.
Trout
Trout, a cousin to salmon, is commonly offered on seafood menus. Rainbow trout is one of the most popular varieties. The Glass Onion serves it pan-roasted with Carolina Gold rice and butterbeans.
Saltwater and freshwater species of trout can be fished from the wild recreationally in South Carolina, but not commercially.
Trout served in restaurants is often farm-raised, but South Carolina tends to be too hot for the cold-water fish species, said Ross Self, DNR's chief of freshwater fisheries.
The trout served at The Glass Onion, for example, comes from Carolina Mountain Trout, a farming operation in North Carolina.
Catfish
Catfish, identified by their barbels (whiskers), is a bottom-dwelling species popular in Southern dishes and served in restaurants across the Holy City atop grits, in sandwiches and as fried bites.
Saltwater catfish are illegal to possess in South Carolina and must be released if caught, Dyar said.
Freshwater catfish are found in the state's creeks, rivers and lakes, and can be caught recreationally and commercially, Self said. They're good at maintaining their population levels, he said.
"Catfish are good parents," Self said. "They lay their eggs in a protected area, usually in an enclosure, and the male guards the nest, eggs and fry (juveniles) for a while. They get more parental care than a lot of these species as they reproduce."
Though some catfish served in Charleston restaurants might be wild-caught, it's more likely they're farm-raised, Self said.
Shellfish
Shellfish -- a catchall term for crustaceans, mollusks and bivalves -- are a staple of Lowcountry cuisine, especially shrimp and oysters.
Shrimp here are classically served with creamy grits or boiled with sausage, potatoes and corn in Frogmore stew. They are harvested locally in South Carolina, but aren't always served at local restaurants.
When The Post and Courier previously asked the question on many minds since the DNA testing results were dropped -- Can local shrimpers catch enough to meet demand? -- the answer from the co-owner of a Charleston-area seafood purveyor was a quick and certain "no."
"If everybody pooled everything they caught in the greater Charleston area, maybe even to include the entire southeast and South Carolina coast, I don't think we could service all the restaurants and the retail need," said Cindy Tarvin, co-owner of Tarvin Seafood Company.
Data from the NOAA shows the average American consumed around 6.9 pounds of shrimp in 2022. That same year, Gulf and South Atlantic fishing crews brought in around 184 million pounds of shrimp, according to landings recorded by NOAA Fisheries.
To meet that demand in the Gulf and South Atlantic, which roughly 92 million people called home in 2022, according to U.S. Census data, shrimpers would have needed to bring in more than 630 million pounds of shrimp -- more than triple the amount landed that year by domestic shrimpers.
Oysters can be wild-caught and farm-raised in South Carolina. Both methods are considered sustainable, Dyar said.
Commercial harvesters are required to plant shells to grow new oysters, and DNR's SCORE program helps replenish oyster reefs, he said. These reefs help the oyster population grow, which can improve water quality and slow shoreline erosion.
Bowens Island on Folly Beach serves local oysters raw and steamed when they're in season.
Blue crabs are caught commercially in South Carolina and often sold out of state, especially in Maryland and Virginia, Dyar said.
She-crab soup and soft shell crab sandwiches are popular offerings in restaurants around Charleston.
New legislation to set limits for commercial and recreational harvesters went into effect July 1.
"Those laws put into place will hopefully help allow that fishery to be a little more sustainable," Dyar said.
Clams are often served in a nest of pasta or in clam chowder. Though they can be wild-caught in South Carolina, it's often not worth the effort to harvest them, Dyar said, noting that clams often only go for around $0.10 each.
"(Clams are) not like oysters where at low tide you can see them easily," Dyar said. "They'll be down in the mud and so you have to claw and scratch for them."
It's more common for the clams sold in restaurants to come from mariculture, which places the clams in bags to make it easier to harvest many at once, he said.